ERI Eritrea profile

The Eritrean political system is dominated by a single party and a ruling leadership that has held power for many years. There are no competitive elections, and political pluralism is constrained. The government exercises tight control over institutions, security services, and the media. The judiciary lacks independence, and civil society is restricted; dissent is discouraged and often met with surveillance or punishment. National service is extensive and compulsory, affecting the labor market, education, and family life, with little room for voluntary civilian work. External relations are characterized by caution and self reliance, leading to limited diplomatic engagement and sustained isolation from some international actors. Governance emphasizes security and sovereignty, often at the expense of accountability, transparency, and the rule of law. Human rights concerns regarding freedom of expression, religious liberty, and freedom of movement persist in international reporting, shaping aid and cooperation dynamics.

Colonial history Colonized by Italy and later occupied by Britain and Ethiopia
Former colonizer Italy
Government type Authoritarian presidential republic
Legal system Civil law system based on the 1997 penal code
Political stability Low; highly centralized and authoritarian governance

The economy is centralized and state led, with most significant activity dominated by state actors and a narrow set of state controlled enterprises. Private enterprise exists but operates under constraint and uncertain property rights, dampening investment. Diversification is limited and dependence on a small number of sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to shocks. Remittances from citizens abroad provide a crucial source of household income. The currency environment is tightly managed, with price controls and subsidies influencing market signals. Infrastructure constraints and policy uncertainty hinder private enterprise, while sanctions and external isolation complicate access to finance, technology, and markets. The labor market experiences rigidity and displacement from national service obligations, reducing skilled labor for civilian use. Environmental and climate factors compound economic risk, particularly for agriculture.

Currency name Eritrean nakfa
Economic system State-controlled with some market-oriented reforms
Informal economy presence Significant presence, especially in urban areas
Key industries Agriculture, mining, construction, telecommunications
Trade orientation Import-dependent; some exports mainly in agriculture and minerals

The country sits in a semiarid to arid zone with a mix of highland areas and a coastal exposure along the sea. Geography shapes settlement patterns, weather, and economic activity, with water scarcity and seasonal drought affecting livelihoods. Soil erosion, deforestation for fuel, and land degradation reduce productivity in rural areas. The coastal zone offers access to maritime routes, but infrastructure and security considerations limit its full potential. Biodiversity is modest and environmental management faces capacity constraints in monitoring and enforcement. Climate variability and recurring drought pose risks to food security and public services, demanding adaptation strategies and resilient planning.

Bordering countries Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti
Climate type Hot desert climate
Continent Africa
Environmental Issues Desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, water scarcity
Landlocked No
Natural Hazards Drought, earthquakes, floods
Natural resources Gold, copper, potash, zinc, and possibly oil and natural gas
Terrain type Highland plateau, coastal plain, desert

Societal dynamics are influenced by a youth heavy demographic with significant migration pressures and reliance on remittances from abroad. Religious life is diverse but tightly regulated by the state in terms of recognition and practice, with unregistered groups facing restrictions. Gender norms and social expectations affect participation in education, work, and political life, while formal protections for civil liberties are limited by the political framework. Access to health care, education, housing, and clean water is uneven, with urban areas faring better than rural regions. Human rights concerns are raised by observers and organizations regarding freedom of movement, association, and expression, and asylum seekers face regulatory hurdles. Social cohesion is shaped by state messaging, public services, and diaspora connections that influence cultural and economic life.

Cultural heritage Rich traditions in music, dance, and oral literature
Driving side Right
Education system type Formal education system with some informal institutions
Ethnic composition Tigrinya, Tigre, Afar, Saho, Bilen, and other ethnic groups
Family structure Extended families are common; patriarchal structure
Healthcare model Public healthcare system with some private care available
Major religions Christianity, Islam
Official languages Tigrinya, Arabic, English

Infrastructure development shows uneven progression, with urban centers better served than rural communities. The telecommunications sector is tightly controlled by the state, limiting competition, innovation, and access to information. Internet and mobile connectivity exist but remain restricted, monitored, and costly, affecting transparency and business operations. Energy supply relies on a mix of domestic generation and external inputs, often with reliability challenges. Transportation networks include ports and roads, with limited rail connectivity, but reliability and maintenance gaps hamper efficient movement of people and goods. Water, sanitation, and waste management services face capacity constraints in many areas, hindering public health and living standards. Access to technology is limited for many households, with scant private sector research and development and limited adoption of modern digital tools.

Internet censorship level High; strict control of information and censorship
Tech innovation level Low; limited access to technology and internet connectivity
Transport system type Limited infrastructure; roads and railways primarily for internal transport

Development indicators

Indicator Year Value Rank 5Y Rank Change
Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism 2023 -0.793 162 +14
Regulatory Quality 2023 -2.36 200 0
Rule of Law 2023 -1.76 196 +5
Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people) 2023 28.5 37 -7
Death rate, crude (per 1,000 people) 2023 6.05 143 +18
Life expectancy at birth, total (years) 2023 68.6 160 -2
Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) 2023 35.4 52 +1
Net migration 2024 -12,696 158 -24
Population, total 2024 3,535,603 131 -4
Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) 2021 80.7 14 0
Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources 2021 11.2 89 0
Total greenhouse gas emissions excluding LULUCF per capita (t CO2e/capita) 2023 1.84 154 +2
Current health expenditure (% of GDP) 2022 3.87 159 +11
Domestic general government health expenditure per capita, PPP (current international US$) 2022 20.2 177 +1
Physicians (per 1,000 people) 2022 0.071 55 -68
Suicide mortality rate (per 100,000 population) 2021 13.2 41 -1
Individuals using the Internet (% of population) 2023 20 142 -18
Control of Corruption 2023 -1.48 186 +6
Government Effectiveness 2023 -1.79 194 -2

Demography and Health

Eritrea’s population stands at about 3.56 million in 2024, placing it mid‑sized among African nations. The demographic profile is clearly young, as shown by a high birth rate of 28.5 births per 1,000 people in 2023, which suggests strong population growth and a future labor force that could drive economic development if health, education, and job opportunities keep pace. Life expectancy at birth is 68.6 years (2023), aligning with many lower‑middle‑income countries and signaling persistent health, nutrition, and maternal‑child care challenges relative to more developed peers. The crude death rate of 6.05 per 1,000 people complements birth trends but does not fully illuminate age structure without broader age‑specific data. The mortality rate for children under five remains high at 35.4 per 1,000 live births (2023), indicating ongoing vulnerability of early childhood and the need for stronger primary care, vaccination coverage, and nutrition programs. Net migration is sharply negative in 2024 (−12,696), implying substantial outflow of people—often a response to economic or political push factors—which can constrain domestic growth and affect long‑term human capital accumulation. Internet usage is modest at 20% (2023), highlighting limited digital inclusion and potential barriers to e‑government and online health information. The density of physicians is very low—0.071 per 1,000 people (2022)—which points to a shortage of healthcare workers and potential access issues, especially in rural areas. Health spending is modest, with current health expenditure at 3.87% of GDP (2022) and per‑capita health expenditure (PPP) of $20.2, signaling constrained domestic financing for health services. The suicide rate is 13.2 per 100,000 (2021), reflecting ongoing concerns about mental health and social support systems. Taken together, Eritrea faces significant health and demographic challenges characteristic of a young, growing population with limited health workforce capacity, modest health investment, and substantial out‑migration that can influence future development trajectories.

Economy, Trade and Investment

Across the available data, Eritrea’s economy appears modest in size with pronounced structural constraints and governance challenges. A striking feature is the energy mix: renewable energy consumption accounts for 80.7% of total final energy consumption in 2021, suggesting a heavy reliance on domestic renewables—likely hydropower, solar, and biomass—that can reduce import vulnerability and energy costs, while also shaping industrial and export potential around green energy and rural electrification. The level of water stress—freshwater withdrawal as a share of available resources—stands at 11.2% (2021), a relatively low withdrawal rate that can support agriculture and energy generation while indicating potential underutilization of water resources or efficient use, though climate variability may alter this balance. Per‑capita greenhouse gas emissions exclude LULUCF are 1.84 t CO2e (2023), indicating low industrial emissions consistent with a smaller, less energy‑intensive economy. Total health expenditure is 3.87% of GDP (2022) with domestic health expenditure per capita (PPP) of $20.2 and physicians per 1,000 people at 0.071, painting a picture of limited healthcare investment and scarce medical workforce that can constrain private sector growth and public service delivery. Internet use is 20% of the population (2023), signaling a nascent digital economy and limited reach for online services and e‑commerce. Governance indicators point to a challenging investment climate: Control of Corruption −1.48, Government Effectiveness −1.79, Regulatory Quality −2.36, Rule of Law −1.76, and Political Stability −0.793 (2023), all well below global norms, implying policy volatility, weak contract enforcement, corruption risks, and barriers to business registration and operation. The combination of a small, young population with weak governance, limited internet penetration, and constrained health investment suggests a cautious investment climate characterized by risk and slow growth, even as the favorable renewable energy base could attract project finance and regional energy ventures if governance and market reforms improve. The pronounced net out‑migration (noted in demography data) further reduces domestic market size and can both drain talent and depress domestic demand, reinforcing the need for targeted reforms to unlock private investment, diversify the economy, and retain skilled workers.

Governance and Institutions

The governance indicators present a notably weak environment across multiple dimensions. Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism score −0.793 in 2023, with a global rank of 162, signaling persistent governance and security concerns compared with many peers. Regulatory Quality is particularly low at −2.36 (rank 200), and the Rule of Law is −1.76 (rank 196), reflecting substantial gaps in legal frameworks, enforcement, and the predictability of regulatory outcomes. Control of Corruption sits at −1.48 (rank 186), and Government Effectiveness is −1.79 (rank 194), pointing to widespread limitations in public sector performance and accountability. Taken together, these indicators suggest a policy environment characterized by limited administrative capacity, inconsistent policy implementation, and potential constraints on the rule of law and business climate. Such conditions can deter domestic and foreign investment, impede service delivery, and complicate efforts to scale public programs, including health, education, and infrastructure. The governance profile aligns with the large negative net migration observed, as residents seek more stable or higher‑quality governance elsewhere. However, this cross‑section of indicators captures a snapshot and may not reflect any recent reforms; nonetheless, the data portray a systemic challenge for Eritrea’s institutions to provide stable, transparent, and accountable governance that can support inclusive development and private sector growth.

Infrastructure and Technology

Eritrea’s infrastructure and technology landscape shows a mix of strengths and gaps. Internet penetration is about 20% (2023), indicating substantial digital divide and limited reach of online services, e‑governance, and digital business models. The health workforce is very constrained, with physicians at 0.071 per 1,000 people (2022), implying limited access to medical care, slower adoption of telemedicine, and potential barriers to achieving universal health coverage. On the upside, renewable energy consumption accounts for 80.7% of total final energy consumption (2021), reflecting a strong domestic energy base and potential resilience to fossil fuel price volatility, as well as opportunities to scale green industries and regional energy exports if governance and investment climate improve. The freshwater withdrawal indicator shows water stress at 11.2% (2021), suggesting a lower level of water use relative to resources in comparison with higher‑stress regions, but climate variability could still threaten water availability in the future. Total greenhouse gas emissions per capita are 1.84 t CO2e (2023), consistent with limited heavy industry and transport intensity. Taken together, Eritrea exhibits a robust renewable energy platform and a relatively low environmental footprint, yet faces critical gaps in digital infrastructure and health workforce capacity that constrain service delivery, innovation, and economic diversification. Targeted investments in ICT infrastructure, data connectivity, health system strengthening, and water resource management could unlock greater participation in digital markets and improve resilience to climate and economic shocks.

Environment and Sustainability

Environmentally, Eritrea presents a relatively modest per‑capita emission profile, with total greenhouse gas emissions excluding LULUCF at 1.84 t CO2e per person in 2023 (rank 154). This is typical for a smaller, less industrialized economy and aligns with limited fossil fuel use and lower energy demand. The country also reports a high share of renewable energy in final energy consumption (80.7% in 2021), which supports energy independence, reduces exposure to external energy price swings, and can improve local air quality. The level of water stress is 11.2% (2021), indicating relatively low freshwater withdrawals relative to available resources and potentially more ample water availability, though this must be interpreted with caution given climate variability and the reliance on hydro resources in some regions. The combined environmental indicators suggest Eritrea has a favorable starting point for sustainable development in terms of emissions and energy mix, yet requires continued governance reform and investment in climate resilience, water management, and adaptation strategies to address potential droughts, flood risks, and variability in renewable energy generation. Strengthening institutions would also help translate environmental strengths into broader social and economic gains, ensuring that renewable potential supports widespread access to energy, education, and health services for the population.